Archaeology
The Temple Mount has a long and complex history, spanning thousands of years and multiple civilizations, each leaving its mark on the site.
The archaeology of the Temple Mount is a highly complex and politically sensitive field due to the site’s immense religious significance and limited opportunities for direct excavation. The Temple Mount, known in Hebrew as Har HaBayit and in Arabic as Al-Haram al-Sharif, is one of the most contested archaeological sites in the world. It is traditionally identified as the location of the First and Second Temples in Judaism and is home to the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque, making it a sacred site for Islam as well. Despite its historical and religious importance, direct archaeological excavations on the Temple Mount itself have been extremely restricted due to religious and political concerns, leading scholars to rely on historical records, external excavations, and indirect evidence.
The earliest known construction on the Temple Mount dates to the Iron Age, corresponding with the biblical First Temple period (circa 10th century–586 BCE). According to Jewish tradition, King Solomon (reigned circa 970–931 BCE) built the First Temple on the site, which was later destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. Archaeological evidence for this period on the Temple Mount itself remains elusive due to the prohibition on excavations, though artifacts from the surrounding areas, such as the Ophel excavations, suggest significant activity. The Second Temple, expanded under Herod the Great (reigned circa 37–4 BCE), stood from 516 BCE until its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE. The Western Wall, Southern Wall, and underground structures such as Solomon’s Stables and the Western Wall Tunnels date to this period and provide critical insights into Herodian construction techniques.
Archaeological excavations in the south-western corner of the Temple Mount (left). Well of Souls (right).
Although excavations directly on the Temple Mount are not permitted, extensive work has been conducted in the surrounding areas. Excavations at the Ophel, City of David, and the Southern Wall Archaeological Park have revealed numerous Second Temple period structures, including ritual baths (mikva’ot), streets, and administrative buildings. Finds such as inscribed seals, coins, and pottery fragments confirm significant Jewish activity during the First and Second Temple periods. The Western Wall Tunnels, which run beneath the current plaza, have provided additional insights into the massive retaining walls built by Herod the Great, including the massive ashlars and the “Master Course” of stone blocks, one of the largest in the structure.
During the Islamic period (7th century CE onward), the Temple Mount underwent significant transformations. In 691 CE, the Dome of the Rock was built by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik, followed by the construction of Al-Aqsa Mosque. The area has since been a focal point of Islamic architecture, with modifications made during the Abbasid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk, and Ottoman periods. Archaeological finds from these periods, such as ceramics, inscriptions, and architectural fragments, indicate continuous habitation and religious activity. The Crusaders also made structural modifications in the 12th century CE, repurposing the Al-Aqsa Mosque as the headquarters of the Knights Templar and converting the underground Solomon’s Stables into an armory and stable complex.
Due to political sensitivities, no systematic excavations have taken place on the Temple Mount itself. However, significant discoveries have emerged from indirect means, such as the Temple Mount Sifting Project, which began in 1999 CE in response to construction work carried out by the Islamic Waqf. This project has recovered thousands of artifacts from debris removed from the site, including Jewish Second Temple-period coins, Roman-era ceramics, early Islamic architectural fragments, and medieval artifacts. These findings, while not found in situ, provide critical data on the material history of the Temple Mount across various periods.
The Temple Mount remains one of the most archaeologically significant yet least explored sites in Jerusalem. The lack of direct excavation has left many historical questions unanswered, but surrounding excavations, architectural studies, and recovered artifacts continue to offer valuable insights. The site’s deep religious significance for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam makes archaeological work highly sensitive, but ongoing research in adjacent areas continues to shed light on the Temple Mount’s history, construction, and cultural transformations over the millennia.
